Observing the behaviour of consumers while shopping

Observing the behaviour of consumers while shopping This essay is based on an analysis of research observations which took place at a Supermarket in Bradford. The aim of the exercise was to observe the behaviour of consumers while shopping in order to theorise and draw conclusions from our observations about consumer buying behaviour when shopping. As a means of interpreting and analysing the data we used the psychoanalytical perspective of Freud, pester power and independent and interdependent self concept. These concepts particularly lend themselves to the interpretation of the data. This essay begins by defining these key concepts before offering an analysis data the research data. Freudian personality theory is otherwise known as the psychoanalytic theory and it is often used by marketers to influence the purchasing decisions of customers in an unconscious way (Bettany, 2011 and Solomon, 2011). The theory is composed of three categories namely the id, the superego and the ego. The id according to Freud is part of our unconscious being as it functions with regards to the pleasure principle; the pleasure is applicable to the id as it seeks immediate gratification of needs (Bettany, 2011 and Solomon, 2011). Hoch and Loewestein (1991:498) claim that the id is the primary process of thinking that is impulsive, stingy and illogical whose aim is to seek pleasure only, avoid pain and not at all worried about the consequences of its actions (Solomon, 2011). Similarly, Hoch and Loewestein (1991:498) note that the ego is secondary process thinking that uses the reality principle and acts as a mediator between the id and the superego. Next is the ego which is aware of the consequences of an action and when it is unable to manage the action a conflict between the id and the superego results and the individual gets anxious (Bettany, 2011). The superego on the other hand is the internalised sense of justice, a persons moral conscience and it is developed last (Solomon, 2011; Bettany, 2011). The superego is derived from the values and morals a child learnt from their interaction with society, family and friends. Whereas as Freud psychoanalytical theory could be applied to both children and adults in terms of explaining consumers behaviours pester power on the other hand is primarily concerned with childrens behaviours. It can be defined as a childs attempts to exert influence over parental purchase in a repetitive and sometimes confrontational manner Nicholls and Cullen (2004:77). Another definition of pester power is presented by Procter and Richards (2002:3) which suggests it is the repeated delivery of unwanted requests. What this means is that parents are bombarded with requests, gestures and pleas from their children to buy items such as foods, toys and clothes. Most often children who carry out this act get what they want (Nicholls and Cullens, 2004). Children might be influenced by either their peers at school (Smithers, 2010) or by advertisements seen on the television (Chandler and Heinzerling, 1998, Smithers, 2010). This framework was used because of our interest in how children in fluence the buying power of their parents. The final theoretical framework employed in this essay is the interdependent and independent self-concept. The interdependent self-concept has been defined in terms of seeing oneself as part of an encompassing relationship and recognizing that ones behaviour is determined, contingent on and, to a large extent, organised by what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others in the relationship (Markus and Kitayama, 1991, p. 227). Markus and Kitayama (1991, 1994) regard the independent self-concept as bounded, unitary, stable, autonomous, individualist, egocentric, self-contained, separate, and detached from the social context. This self-concept is perceived as a distinctive configuration of traits, thoughts and feelings that regulate individual behaviour and underlie individual strivings towards the fulfillment of personal goals such as realising oneself (Milland and Reynolds, 2011). The id is manifested in a baby girl who would not stop crying despite the fact her mother rocked her while she was in the trolley, called out her name and spoke to her. Since her basic desire to maximise pleasure has not been met, she cried continuously. People around the family recognised the child was an infant in need of her mothers attention; they did not mind and instead went about their business. The eldest son aged between 3-5 years has matured from the id stage to the ego. This was seen by the actions he displayed when he listened intently to his mothers instruction and returned the LEGO back to the shelf. He understood the reality of the situation and realised the consequence was not pleasant. The ego being the reality principle ensures the ids needs are met in a realistic manner (Solomon, 2011). Although initially he insisted on having his way, that is to say, wanted his mother to buy the toy for his friend, realising she would not back down from her position, he relented and obeyed her instructions. In this event the mother prevailed. The eldest son would have developed his superego and this act as a moral conscience in him with regards to dictating a sense of wrong and right (Solomon, 2011). The moral lesson taught by his mother manifested when he realised his mother would not buy the LEGO, he obeyed her and returned it. In relation to the accepted behaviour in the store, the mother did not seem to mind that her eldest son had left her side to pick up a LEGO in the toy aisle. This might indicate that the mother sees the child as independent to a certain degree. The child in demonstrating his independent to his mother by listens to her and responding appropriately seemed to give her a sense of pleasure. The id also appeared to be apparent in a boy who was pushed around the supermarket by his aunt. The thrill of being pushed was heard in his shouts of excitement, laughing and shouting again, again after his aunt stopped. The boy clearly relished this moment as he seeks pleasure. He operates according to the pleasure principle and was not concerned that his aunt was exhausted and needed a break. Another example, of the manifestation of the id was a crying boy in his push chair, even though he was comforted by his mother, he kept on crying because his need for sleep was not met. Maslow hierarchy of need is also relevant in explaining this example. According to Maslow sleep is regarded as one of the most basic of needs but this mother also wanted to get on with her shopping because it gave her a sense of satisfaction even pleasure in seeking to satisfy two another basic psychological needs which are food and security (Blackwell et al 2006). Later on, one came across the same woman and her son who was fast asleep in his push chair while his mother continued with her shopping in peace. Closely related to but different from the psychological theory of Freud is the concept of pester power. In this example, one came across a mother who has three children. The infant a baby girl and small son who were seated in the trolley; the mother was busy examining the supermarket shelf filled with gifts for new-born and the third child the eldest, was at the aisle for children toys. He brought her a football asking if he can get the ball for his friend Barry. His mother said no and he took the ball back to where he got if from. Next he came back with a LEGO and pleaded with his mother to buy him the toy. He rubbed his two hands together saying mama please I want Lego, she told him he could not have the Lego because he had more than enough toys. Nevertheless, the child persisted begging his mother but she did not change her mind and since she refused his requests to purchase the toy, he returned it back to the shelf. Following this incident the mother spent a considerable amount o f time on the aisle; as she picked up different gifts, looked at the gifts before settling for a gift bag and money-box. She left the aisle and came back again looking at each gifts. The baby girl started crying and the mother called out her name to stop her crying but the baby persisted. The mother picked up a baby cushion, looked at the cushion, the price, placed the product in her trolley and left the aisle for another. Yet, the babys crying persisted. Pester power is a consumer behaviour concept that has become a relevant issue in society because of childrens ability to influence their parents skilfully into getting them products has increased greatly (Oaff, 2001; Smithers, 2010). Nowadays, parents seem to be under a lot of pester pressure to provide their childrens wants and not needs; the pressure is more manifest during Christmas and birthdays (Smithers, 2010) and in some cases, parents have to forgo basic necessities in order to meet and fulfil their childrens wish. Some parents are even willing to go into debt due to pester power (Oaff, 2001 and Smithers, 2010). Now, one could argue that parents are at fault by spoiling their children with presents and granting their every wish. Yet, another perspective could be parents truly believe that by providing for their children, the child will not want for anything. This probably again is linked to Maslows hierarchy when parents gain a level of self-fulfilment by satisfying the needs of their children. Smithers (2010), argues that pester power is due to a commercialised society that has transformed festive periods into money-making machine pushed by adverts on childrens television and influenced by friends at schools. In the case of this ethnography study, the mother did prevail against pester power because the mother has developed well-honed antennae which detects her sons attempts to influence her (Marshall et al., 2007). Yet, one wondered if the study had taken place in the holiday season, would the mother have relented and purchased the Lego for her son? Mehrotra and Torges (1977) suggest that when shopping for food, parents often yield to their childrens influence and purchase what their children want. The reason for this is the fact that children have been exposed to adverts on television. This as a consequence enables them to impact their parents purchase behaviour (Chandler and Heinzerling, 1998). This might also be due to the fact that some of the children do not eat much at home and therefore, the parents are worried and have tried everything yet nothing seems to work. So, when shopping with their children, and they are presented with an opportunity to buy food their kids prefer to eat, the parents will not pass it up. With regards to toys, this is rather different and some parents do not yield to pester power. Nicholls and Cullen (2004:78) suggest that the parent-perceived childs influence for food is greater than the parent-perceived childs influence for toys revealing that the level of toys consumption is lower than the level of food consumption. As a result, when it comes to toys, the parents can afford to say no and refuse their childrens request. Exception is made during festive periods such as birthdays and Christmas (Smithers, 2010). Although Mehrotra and Torges (1977) argued that when parents refuse their childrens request, what follows is an explanation of why the product was not purchased. This was not seen in the ethnography study. After instructing her eldest son to return the LEGO, the mother continued her shopping. Our observation would suggest that when people shop individually they tend to spend more on clothing. For Millan and Renolds (2011:6) suggested that consumers who exhibit stronger independent tendencies may be heavier buyers of value-expressive goods than those who are more interdependent which is because, self-expression, self-reward, and hedonic gratification tend to be important motivational factors. Individual that came alone seemed less discerning, and spent more time evaluating various brands across multiple price categories and more often bought clothes that were expensive. This appeared to be the case because consumer was shopping for personal use. In cases where consumers are accompanied by one or more friends or family members, the presence of friends or family did seem to influence the purchase decision significantly. The buyers in these categories were more discerning, the purchase decision was made faster and the concern was largely in adhering to a particular price band rather than any particular quality of the product. For example, a gentle man wanted to buy an expensive jacket but his wife objected to the price of the item and so they settled for an item of lower value. It seemed to us that when people shopped in groups they spent more time discussing and less time shopping. This indicates that shopping in this context can be interpreted as a means of pleasure and it might be linked to the id from Freudian personality theory which is focused on the pleasure principle. This gives rise to the argument that clothing can be used to form independent self concept or a preference for self-expression and a means of hedonic cons umption. Additionally, in groups consumers appeared more impulsive than planned, as most buyers appeared undecided about what brand or type of cloths to buy. Sometimes family accompanied buyers tried many products across multiple ranges, often posh, categories and settled on a cheaper product, like common labels. This leads one to infer that a lot of the purchases were impulsive. Another example of the pleasure principle in shopping is concerned with children and parents enjoying their children play. There are toy cars in the supermarket close to the doors and children would get into these toys. Sometimes the children just played on their own while the parents talk either to other family members. In other case, the parents would put money into the toys and have fun with the children. In this regard, the parents seemed happy and laughed quite a lot. This would indicate that the parents were having as much fun as the children. Another example of the pleasure principle effect from the observation is connected with the notion of self-concept and self-expression. Millan and Reynolds (2011:4) propose that the stronger ones independent self-concept, the more pronounced will be the consumers preference for self-expression and inner enjoyment through clothing. Going back to the above example about shopping for clothes it is evident that this serves as a means of self-expression. Clothing usually serves a potent avenue for stimulating positive emotions during purchase and subsequent usage. It can be argued that independent consumers are introverts and lack emotional and relevant support networks such as the extended family and may be lonely. Consequently, expenditure on goods and services which are likely to arouse pleasant stimulus and emotional fulfilment will be alluring to consumers with a strong independent self-concept (Millan and Reynolds 2011). On the other hand, Bagozzi et al (2000) argues that the behavi our of consumers with a strong independent self-concept is basically guided by personal needs, attitudes, and perceived rights rather than social norms and filial obligations. While interdependent tendencies possessed by family accompanied shoppers is compatible with the theory of the interdependent self-concept, according to which modesty and judicious spending is an inherent trait of the interdependent self, underlying self-effacing presentations and behaviours in diverse social settings (Heine et al., 2000). Again this can be related to Maslows hierarchy of needs and in particular the self-esteem or self realisation aspect. This behaviour is influenced by a strong pressure to conform to family and peoples expectation, as well as a fear of being excluded from the group which is consistent with views expressed by Lee and Karen (2000) which reports a strong correlation between ones interdependent self concept and group relationship motives for purchasing goods. Which reiterates beliefs that spending so much money on status signifying clothes will be detrimental to groups goals and objectives which may include feeding and other general welfare necessary in a family setting. Strong evidence found by Millan and Renolds (2011) suggests that consumers possessing a high independent disposition were more inclined to shopping activities via regular visits to clothing shops, keeping up with latest trends and information obtainable in at shops thereby spending more money on clothing than interdependent consumers, the reason for this being that consumers with a strong independent self concept tend to satisfy a wide v ariety of symbolic and hedonic needs through this means of consumption. In conclusion, we found that at times of recession supermarket need to place emphasis on satisfying consumer needs otherwise they could change suppliers. Therefore it is important to better understand consumers lifestyles, and choice criteria. This would include the selection of suitable media and designing suitable consumer messages. One area of further research could be to what extent consumers remain loyal to specific brands in time of economic recession. We believe that shopping could be more of a pleasure for children if playing facilities were provided. This might encourage parents to spend longer shopping and by implication buy more. One weakness of the observation in our view was the fact that we depended solely on the observation it would have been more useful to double-check our analysis with the consumers being observed.

Nonsmokers: A Prospective Study

In 2006, Rudolf bertagnoli and his team published a study investigating the effects of smoking on patients who have undergone Lumbar total disc arthroplasty. â€Å"Smoking has always been considered to a negative predictor for fusion surgery.† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) Not many studies have been undertaken to observe effects of smoking on the procedure of Total arthroplasty and the recovery afterwards in smoking and non smoking patients. Some research suggests that smoking prevents or reduces the bones ability to grow into the prosthesis. Delay in recovery and decrease in over all success of the implantation procedure have also been blamed on smoking. (ProDisc Total Disc Replacement, 2008) â€Å"The aim of the study was to evaluate the changes in functional and disability outcomes within a period of two years minimum in smoking and nonsmoking patients who have undergone the artificial disc replacement therapy.† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) The Null hypothesis and the Alternate hypothesis proposed were as follows. Null Hypothesis: Smoking has no detrimental effect on success of artificial disc replacement (ADR). Alternate Hypothesis: â€Å"Smoking has a detrimental effect on the success of artificial disc replacement (ADR).† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) A cohort study was conducted with an initial sample of 110 patients between March 2000 and April 2002. The inclusion criteria for the sampling included, smokers and non smokers, age between 18-65 years, â€Å"disabling low back pain and some radicular pain secondary to single-level lumbar spondylosis† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) , patients undergoing minimum of 2 year follow up and assessment, and lastly failure of medical treatment. They excluded â€Å"patients with spinal stenosis, osteoporosis, prior fusion surgery, chronic infections, metal allergies, facet arthrosis, inadequate vertebral endplate size, more than one level of spondylosis, neuromuscular disease, pregnancy, Workers' Compensation, spinal litigation, body mass index greater than 35, and/or any isthmic.† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) Patient’s smoking status was recorded through questionnaires. Preoperative aspects of the lumbar anomaly were recorded radiographically. Outcome measurements were recorded at 3rd, 6th, 12th and the 24th month after undergoing the procedure. The procedure success and recovery progression was noted using the Visual Analog Score (VAS) and the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). Questionnaires recording the back pain, pain drugs usage and patient satisfaction were also used. Preoperative and postoperative radiographical assessment of the back was also used to observe the recovery progression in both, the smoking and non smoking group of patients. Dependent variables included Smoking and Non smoking group. Whereas the independent variables included VAS, ODI, patient satisfaction, leg pain, work rates (postoperative), and drugs used postoperatively. Statistical analysis was done as it was found that even though there was significant changes between preoperative and postoperative variable like VAS, ODI, patient satisfaction, relief of leg pain work rate etc but no statistically significant differences were found between these outcomes of smoking patients when compared with nonsmokers. Therefore, the study fails to reject the null hypothesis, which still stands, i.e. â€Å"Smoking has no detrimental effect on success of artificial disc replacement (ADR).† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) The research was conducted in a controlled manner excluded many bias.   But further studies need to be conducted with larger sample sizes to further explore the role of smoking if any, in the success of disc replacement. Also there is need for exploring the link between blood levels of nicotine and success of procedure as well as the effects of smoking and indicators of bone adherence to the prosthesis needs to be further conducted. Couple of questions that come to mind, if nicotine plays such great inhibiting effect on the bone and collagen growth as the study claims, then why wasn’t the effect of smoking   on growth factors and their monitoring not included in the study. Also, if as the researchers claim, that nicotine has an analgesic effect on patient, was it not included as a component in the study? REFERENCES Bertagnoli. R., Yue. J.J., Kershaw.T, Shah.R, V., Pfeiffer. F, Fenk-Mayer, A, et al. (2006). Lumbar Total Disc Arthroplasty Utilizing the ProDisc Prosthesis in Smokers versus Nonsmokers: A Prospective Study with 2-Year Minimum Follow-up. Spine, 3, 992-997. ProDisc Total Disc Replacement (2008).   Spine Service- Sydney, Australia, retrieved on February 29th, 2008, from http://www.spine-service.org/dr.html ; ; ; ; ;

The Black Death - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1133 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/09/22 Category Advertising Essay Type Narrative essay Tags: Death Essay Did you like this example? Sure the sight of a black bubble in a person’s skin could scare someone at least a little, or the terrible aches and pains brought about by a disease which no one in the region had heard about or had the slightest idea of a cure for could be a bit frightening. Just as it was during the 14th thru 16th centuries in Western Europe and just as it is today, death was and still is a big thing to fear. Thus, this epidemic that killed one third of Western Europe’s population got to be known as the Black Death, and people feared it. The population’s responses to the Black Death and its consequences were driven by fear due to religious superstition and a lack of knowledge about the epidemic itself. Even the rich and noble feared the plague just as much as the peasants had feared it. No matter of what social class a person was, if the Black Death had hit them, it had hit them. If the person was of a wealthy or noble family, he or she would not have a greater chan ce of survival than any other peasant who was also infected by the disease. According to Nicolas Versoris, the rich fled, so that the few porters and wage earners were left (doc. ). The concerns of the rich regarding the plague are best demonstrated by Giovan Filippo who declared that gold was for the expense to quarantine pest houses, gallows were for punishing the unhealthy sanitation and putting fear in others, and fire was for the burning of infected things (doc. 6). Even a puritans, Nehemian Wallington, who worked towards religious, moral and societal reforms, showed that he would be the last of anyone in his household to surrender to the plague, throwing the people he knew and his family at it first (doc. ). While most of the people believed it best to run from the plague because of their fear, some, such as Sir John Reresby, held an opposite point of view when he declared that when news of the plague came from Rome, many gentlemen were discouraged from travel but a few and my self (doc. 12). People who lived during the 1400’s and the 1600’s relied on God and religion much too extensively in everyday life and that led to people having superstitions linked to religion because of the plague. Surely, one of the first things people would blame the plague on was God since the belief was that God controlled everything, including disease. The concerns of those not deeply involved with the church still show a reliance on God and a blaming of God for the plague. This is best demonstrated by M. Bertrand, an ordinary physician, who said that the plague must be a particular chastisement exercised by an angry God over a sinful and offending people rather than a calamity proceeding from common and natural causes (doc. 16). People of religious office started to believe that they could save themselves from the plague by appealing to God or the church, as such is the example of a priest named Father Dragoni who appealed to the Health Magistracy of Flor ence stating that he had accompanied severity with compassion and charity, managed and fed the convalescents and servants of two pest houses, and paid guards and gravediggers with the alms given to him (doc. 9). A statue was rectified in Vienna, Austria by Emperor Leopold in gratitude for the end of the plague that had gripped Vienna. The paintings depicted of the statue show angels and holy figures all around the statue signifying that it was the angels and the holy forces that took down the plague, once again showing man’s reliance on God (doc. 15). While most holy figures and people of religious and political offices believed that God was the reason for the plague and the answer to stop it, others such as Lisabetta Centinni looked on the power of the Holy Spirit as a healing and saving power when she describes how her husband Ottavio ate a little piece of bread that had touched the body of St. Domenica and suddenly his fever broke (doc. 7). The lack of knowledge of m ost people that suffered from the plague resulted also in responses of fear out of not knowing what to do to prevent the plague and its consequences. The beliefs of the uneducated brought up many new aroused ideas of how to prevent the plague, and most ideas came quickly due to fear of catching the plague if not knowing how to stop it. Heinrich von Staden, a traveler to Russia, described ways that people tried to prevent the disease such as right when a plague visited a house, it was nailed up and burned, and if a person died within, he had to be buried there. All the roads and highways were guarded so a person could not pass from one place to another (doc. 5). A French physician, H de Rochas, describes how plague stricken patients hang around their necks toads, either dead or alive, whose venom should, within a few days, draw out the poison of the disease (doc. 10). Fear of the infection is just as present, and to avoid catching the sickness people even took extreme precautio ns as to not even dare to buy a wig, because the hair had been cut off from the heads of people dead to the plague (doc. 13). As the peasants and some other educated people came up with their ideas of preventing the plague, others, including nobilities, like Erasmus of Rotterdam, declared that the plague and sickness in England was due to the filth in the streets and the sputum and dogs’ urine clogging the rushes on the floors of the houses (doc. ). Of course it was not a perfected theory, but it differed from the others and brought up a more logical explanation. Religious superstition, lack of knowledge about the plague, and fear drove people’s responses toward the Black Death. The fear of the rich was no different from the fear of the poor because if a rich man and a poor man both caught the plague, the results would not differ. The religious superstitions that people possessed about the plague were all made up out of fear of the disease. The lack of knowledge peo ple had about the plague led to the quick production of theories to stop the plague because people were afraid that the more they wait for a cure, the higher the chance is that they will catch the plague. People had to live with the constant fear that they might be next to catch the plague and thus, any theory about the plague and about how to avoid it that sounded logical at the time was thought of. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Black Death" essay for you Create order The Black Death - Free Essay Example Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2736 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/07/03 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Black Death Essay Did you like this example? There is no escaping death, it is a fate everyone must accept. Death can strike in ways that are detrimental not only to a select few, but an entire population as a whole. This is the case with the Black Death, where a plague of epic proportions swept through the continents of Europe and Asia claiming the lives of millions. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Black Death" essay for you Create order The Black Death is known as perhaps the most devastating global epidemic that struck the aforementioned areas in the middle fourteenth century. Its destruction stands out as one of the most dramatically life altering events in history. This was a widespread pestilence starting in Asia and then continuing through Europe at an extremely rapid pace. With such an event comes peoples demand for an explanation. In his book, The Black Death, John Aberth explores the causes of, and reactions to the Black Death through a series of accounts taken during that time. The Black Death caused a great deal of frantic confusion in medieval Europe, and a debate between religious explanations for the plague and scientific explanations ensued. The responses to the Black Death and the medieval relationship between Christianity and science is very interesting and is worthwhile to dissect. The Black Death is an epidemic of the plague, a horrendous disease caused by the bacteria known as Yersinia pestis (Aberth 14) which takes three forms: septicemic, pneumonic, and bubonic. Louis Sanctus worked in the papal office and provides legitimate examinations of autopsies conducted by the Catholic Church. In an excerpt from his Letter written in Avignon the papal see at the time, Sanctus discusses the three types of the plague and their horrifying realities. He mentions that bubonic plague is the main focus of the Black Death as it is this form of plague that is known for being so extreme and so deadly. The bubonic plague as it was contagious and had no quick remedy, poised the biggest threat to humanity during the Black Death. Symptoms a person could have seen or felt as a result of the plague included: pain in their lungs, coughing up blood, and a respiratory infection followed by death within two to three days after contraction. The pneumonic plague was another type of plagu e that had a more grotesque physical appearance. Sanctus describes seeing people with tumors that would appear on both armpits and would become extremely infected from which men would die without delay (Document 4). The septicemic plague was similar to the pneumonic plague in that tumors would form at the groin and death would follow. Yersinia pestis is carried by small fleas which normally feed on rodents, however they did bite humans as well. The rats that were infected with this bacterium would often venture to heavily populated areas such as cities making the spread of the pestilence that much easier. The origins of the Black Death are explained by Michele de Piazza a Franciscan friar who records what may have been the first arrival of the plague on European soil: It so happened that in the month of October in the year of our Lord 1347twelve Genoese galleys, fleeing our Lords wrath which came down upon them for their misdeeds, put in the port of Messina. They brought with them a plague that they carried down to the very marrow of their bones, so that if anyone so much as spoke to them, he was infected with a mortal sickness which brought on an immediate death that he could in no way avoid. (Aberth, p. 1) While no one at the time knew exactly what was going on, theories and explanations were being thrown around to explain the pestilence. Scientific theories such as the poison thesis was one of these explanations. The poison thesis suggested that people became infected because their bodies became contaminated by food and water they consumed, or the air they breathed. This was a more logical explanation as it left the door open for medicines and other such remedies in an attempt to cure the plague. Other such theories included some of a more religious standpoint. Medieval Christians were taken aback by their fear of God as one example of this as they believed God was angry with them and the plague was a display of his wrath on humanity. The Book of Revelation also played a key role in developing a reason for the pestilence as in the book it describes the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: famine, plague, death, and war. These theories for the cause of the Black Death caused mass hysteria and forced medieval Christians into repentance for their sins, but as time went on not even the priests would want to go out in public to risk becoming infected with the plague. Medieval Christians during the Black Death understood the pestilence to be something of great concern, and as mentioned earlier, theories were brought about to explain the plague. The rationalist approach of scientific reasonings behind the plague take aim at concrete displays of what occurred in medieval Europe during the middle fourteenth century. Medical reasons and environmental explanations are what take the helm of the argument for the scientific mentalities of how the Black Death began. Alfonso de Crdoba was a Spanish master of the liberal and medical arts (Document 8) who examined the cause and nature of the Black Death. He describes the epidemic in his Letter and Regimen concerning the Pestilence as one not of natural causes, but of an artificial nature caused by humans. He offers assistance in this troubling time. And there is another cause besides the natural one, and for this reason and out of compassion for the [Christian] faithful who chiefly suffer from it, I have written down this letter and regimen, along with its medicines, so that pious and good people may not be subjected to so many dangers and may know how to prevent the great dangers and evils that threaten Christians in this pestilence. (Document 8). At the time, all of Christendom was taken over by the spread of the pestilence. Cordoba takes matters into his own hands by recommending what Christians must be on the lookout for. For instance, he recommends that to prevent the dangers that threaten Christians, people must be aware of their food and water as it may already be infected. While he denies there being any sort of astrological phenomena causing the plague, he does claim the plague to be airborne. Cordoba states, The wise counsel of doctors does not profit or help those in the grips of this most cruel and pernicious disease. (Document 8). Crdoba goes on to recommend the best solution to the plague is to flee the areas affected by the pestilence. Infected air is another major factor of the plague, and Crdoba prescribes his pestilential pills (Document 8), glass flasks filled with a concoction as they may protect the immune system from the polluted air. He gives recipes for the pills and suggests sterilizing and purifying t he air in which people live with the pills by burning them with hot coals. In a Muslim account of the Black Plague, Abu Jafar Ahmad Ibn Khatima gives his take and diagnosis of the plague from the region of Almeria, Spain. Khatima speaks of the plague from his first-hand experience with the epidemic. His work is one of the most detailed accounts of the Black Death and is worthwhile to compare and contrast to the Christian means of diagnosis and medical response to the plague. He states the plague is a malignant, and continuous fever (Document 6) which was airborne and heightened by the combination of heat and moisture in the area. These environmental conditions make The first signs of the plague included a fever along with anxiety and increased sweats. The following day, a person would become disoriented and their fever would continue to rise. One interesting point that Khatima brings up is how countries heightened the security of their borders so that a person who came from a region where the plague was, was not allowed to enter. The measures taken by these nations show just how serious the pestilence was considered to be. However, matter what precautions people took to prevent the plague the illness would still strike. If anyone came into contact with a sick man, they would themselves become stricken with the plague. According to Khatima, this is all followed by cramps, vomiting, and lesions on the skin. Khatima goes on then to acknowledge how the infection was spreading rapidly across the European continent, and how deadly the plague was stating: It will not be long before a healthy individual who lives in the vicinity of a sick manis stricken to the core and afflicted with the same disease (Document 6). Khatima also says that the plague was an act of God as a manifestation of His almighty greatness (Document 6). This begs the question of whether the plague was thought to be a punishment from God upon the people of Europe? While many people looked to science to be the means to explain and solve the Black Death, more Christians looke d to their religion for clarity. It is estimated that the Black Death killed off nearly half of Europes population person who was in medieval Europe and Asia from 1347-1350, the plague infected nearly every person did not spare those of any age or fortune (Document 1). Signs that a person had contracted the pestilence which led to an early death, were tumorous outgrowths on the thighs and arms which bleed out profusely and would take the life of a person in a matter of days. People of medieval Europe and medieval Christians in particular sought religious counsel. John Aberth the author of the book The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350: A Brief History with Documents discusses in the introduction how some authors describe the origins of the disease in apocalyptic language, may be simply referencing the Old or New Testament (Aberth 11). He is talking about the books of Exodus and Revelation which describe plagues themselves. The book of Exodus talks about the ten plagues in Egypt while the Book of Revelati on speaks of seven plagues. What makes the book of Revelation even more serious is the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: famine, war, death, and conquest. With that said it is no surprise that medieval Christians believed they were being punished by the wrath of God as they could relate back to these scriptures, what they had read was now a horrifying reality. The plague created mass confusion and psyched out medieval Christendom as a whole. Being as such, many Christians believed God was not pleased with humankind, and he sent the plague as punishment. With such madness surrounding medieval Europe in the middle fourteenth century, many extreme Christians emerged with their own form of penance for their sins. Fritsche Closener was a priest in Strasbourg who details the manic responses to the plague that he witnessed in the city in his document Chronicle. Flagellants are those who follow an extreme penitential guide and take the means of religion to the most radical forms. Many of these included public beatings with whips as part of their discipline and devotional practice. The flagellants were at the peak of their existence during the mid-fourteenth century. The flagellants would go about this as they feared God sent the plague as a punishment for humankind. Closener describes them as, wearing overcoats and hoods with red crosses (Document 23), they would even chant such statements that would want them to suffer as Christ suffered. One important chant that stands out is Now we lift our hands and pray/ O God take the great death away! (Document 23). In the Chronicle, Closener condemns these proceedings and describes them as heretical. It is frightening to see such extreme measures taken by medieval Christians, however it is not surprising. When you have run out of hope for humanity after witnessing such devastation, one cannot blame the flagellants for taking their religion literally by reenacting the events of the Passion of Christ. Amongst all of the horror that was the Black Death, were the obvious searching for a scapegoat which medieval Christians wasted no time in finding. A vast majority of medieval Christians put the blame of the Black Death on the Jews in Europe by accusing them of poisoning various wells around Europe in what is known as the poison conspiracy (not to be confused with the poison thesis). Konrad of Megenberg, a scholar and priest, comments on the poison conspiracy concerning the medieval Jews at the time. During the Black Death, Jewish communities throughout Europe were accused of poisoning wells and spreading the plague. From these accusations, Jews were put to death by the thousands. The belief was that the Jews did this in order to wipe out the Christians and become once again the chosen people of God. Konrad of Megenberg reasons that even after all the Jews in many places have been killed and completely driven outthe Death still strikes these same places with a strong hand (Document 2 7). Konrad believes that the Jews are not responsible for the pestilence that had taken over the European continent. He knows that even if all the Jews are wiped out, the plague would still overpower the world. Finally, the Black Death caused such a ruckus that even the clergy did not know how to handle the situation. The Archbishop of Canterbury Simon Islip, comments on the fear that struck the hearts of parish priests. He explains how in the time frame of a year (1348-1349), the Archdiocese of Canterbury saw the deaths of three of their archbishops. All of the archbishops were victims of the plague. In his document Effrenata, Islip discusses how the plague started to drive parish priests away from their home churches to find more worthwhile opportunities in private chapels away from the pestilence. Parishioners were the main source of income for the priests and now that they were being wiped out by the plague, not as much money was being brought in by the Church. Archbishop Islip condemned such actions as they mirrored the deadly sin of greed, and so went so far as to say that such priests directly go against Gods will by abandoning their people and parishes. He states, priests are unwill ing to take on the care of souls and to bear the burdens of their cures in mutual charity, but rather they wholly abandon these to devote themselves to celebrating anniversary masses and other private services (Document 18). The unfortunate proceedings of these priests are quite disgusting as they would rather abandon their parishioners who needed them as a source of hope and penance to avoid the fiery gates of Hell in order to make more money. The Black Death is known as perhaps the most devastating global epidemic that struck the Europe and Asia in the middle fourteenth century. Its destruction stands out as one of the most dramatically life altering events in history. There were conflicting ideas as to how this pestilence came to be as there are both scientific and religious explanations. Most medieval Christians understood the Black Death as a punishment from God for their sins and searched for a scapegoat to relieve them of their worry. For the most part, only those who were educated understood that the plague was not the wrath of God, but rather an epidemic which could be explained through medicine and autopsies. In his book, The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350: A Brief History with Documents, John Aberth explores the causes of, and reactions to the Black Death through a series of accounts taken during that time. The Black Death caused a great deal of frantic confusion in medieval Europe, and a debate be tween religious and scientific explanations for the Black Death ensued. The responses to the Black Death and the medieval relationship between Christianity and science was very interesting and was worthwhile to dissect. In the end, neither the scientific nor religious cures were beneficial to humankind as hundreds of millions of lives were claimed by the Black Death. It is a shame that medieval Christians who were alive during such a disturbing time had to suffer through so much and witness such horror. Europe and Asia would not recover from the number of people lost from the Black Death until a few hundred years in the future.

Crime And Its Effects On The Public Perception Of Crime

The unfortunate reality of society relying on the media for information regarding criminal events, subjects the public to the misrepresentation and manipulation on the validity of crime in the community. Steven Chermak was one of few to examine into detail the various factors of a crime that affect the amount of attention and space a media source (in this case newspapers) awards to the crime story. In his article, Predicting Crime Story Salience: The Effects of Crime, Victim, and Defendant Characteristics, as the title implies, the components investigated incorporate the differing variables from the circumstances of a crime and the characteristics of both the offender(s) and the victim(s) (Chermak, 1998, p.61). Chermak remarks on the medias manipulation, and presentation methods of crime stories and it’s effects on the public perception of crime. More recent publications in the world of criminology, including â€Å"The Criminal Event: An Introduction to Criminology in Canada by L.W Kennedy and V.F Sacco, and Study Guide: Introduction to Criminology by B. Cartwright have similar and differing views to Chermak. This essay will address and summarize Chermak’s article, state his findings, and relate them to the information stated in the works of Cartwright, and Kennedy and Sacco. In his article, Chermak (1998) claims the previous studies completed on the representation of crime in the media contain major breaches in the content examined. Some examples include; how variation inShow MoreRelatedCrime Data And Its Effects On Victims And The Public Essay1627 Words   |  7 Pagessomewhat brief insight and view of crime reporting within South Australia and the perceptions of crime within the state. He provides the reader with his personal view and concerns which are: †¢ The public’s perception in regards to crime statistics within South Australia through media and social media; and †¢ His frustrations at the lack of reporting of crime and the reluctance of victims/witnesses, to come forward and assist police with their enquiries to solve crime. This critique of Commissioner Burns’Read MoreCrime Data And Its Effects On Victims And The Public Essay1597 Words   |  7 Pagesinsight and view of crime reporting within South Australia and the perceptions of crime within the state. Commissioner Burns provides the reader with his personal view of his frustrations and concerns which are: †¢ the public’s perception in regards to crime statistics within South Australia through media and social media; †¢ his frustrations at the lack of reporting of crime and reluctance of victims/witnesses, to come forward and assist police with their enquiries to solve crime. This critique ofRead MoreThe Importance Of A Moral Panic And How It Can Influence The Publics Perception Of Crime Essay1602 Words   |  7 Pagespublic’s perception of crime. Give examples. It is unforunate that we live in a world where the media and government can influence personal opinions on acts of crimes and deviance. This essay will discuss the idea of a ‘moral panic’ and how it can influence the publics perception of crime. The paper will begin with a discussion on what a moral panic is, and then discuss Goode and Ben Yehuda’s four main types of a moral panic. Following this will be a summary on why the perceptions of crime have changedRead MoreRealtionship Between the Media, Public Perceptions of Crime and Police1553 Words   |  7 Pagesof exposure to specific news media affect fear of crime? This question is examined in a survey with data collected from three universities in the United States and one in Canada;  The Impact of Media on Fear of Crime among University Students: A Cross-National Comparison, goes over the results. It’s believed that fear in itself can be debilitating leading to harmful social outcomes. Vincent Sacco b elieves there are three dimensions to fear of crime: cognitive, emotional and behavioral. Cognitive looksRead MoreCrime And Fear Of Crime1699 Words   |  7 PagesWhen it comes to issues of crime and criminals, there are numerous potential influences that can shape an individual’s perceptions. Additionally, a major factor of perceptions of crime is the underlying emotional reactions to crime and criminal issues. These emotions about crime are vary from person to person but fear of crime tends to be regarded as the most influential response, as represented by the vast research conducted on the topic of fear of crime and its effects. In this paper, three articlesRead MoreMedias Influence on Crime in Postmodern Society970 Words   |  4 PagesHow do the Media Influence our understandings about crime in postmodern society? Can they also influence levels of crime? The media has a huge influence on how crime is presented and perceived. In fact, the media might even have an impact on crime prevalence and type. Reiner (2007) points out that hard scientific evidence shows that television viewing affects the ways children behave, and that children imitate violent images, (Reiner, 2007, p. 302). Based on this information, it is not justRead MoreThe Effects Of Media On Fear Of Crime1488 Words   |  6 PagesREVIEW OF LITERATURE Overrepresentation of Crime and the Media Numerous studies have been done investigating fear of crime and causal links (Dorfman and Schiraldi 2001; Gerbner and Gross 1976; Hale 1996). However, few empirical studies have been done that examine the effects media has on fear of crime (Chermack 1994). Media is defined as a manner in which we can access information and news through technology (Gillium 2000). This might be on television, radio, newspapers and magazines, and otherRead MoreCrime, Moral Panics and the Media Essay1726 Words   |  7 Pages Most people use second hand information as their core source of information about crime, this source of information usually being the media. When carrying out sample research in Birmingham, Susan Smith (1984) discovered that 52% of people obtained most of their information about crime from the media, 36% obtained it from hearsay or alleged experiences of friends and neighbours, 3% from their own experiences, and 1% from the police service themselves (cited in JonesRead MoreHow The Media Shapes The Public Discourse Of Crime1344 Words   |  6 Pagesand Analysis of How the Media Shapes the Public Discourse of Crime Whether through social media, televised news, or newspapers, most people are exposed to some sort of news media every day. It is the responsibility of the media to inform the public about what is happening in the world around us, and more often than not, that includes reporting crime. If the media is the source of our information, they have the power to influence our perception of that information. The media have theRead MoreSanctions, Perceptions, And Crime852 Words   |  4 PagesSANCTIONS, PERCEPTIONS, AND CRIME HOW MUCH DO WE REALLY KNOW ABOUT CRIMINAL DETERRENCE According to the journal article, How Much Do We Really Know about Criminal Deterrence? The concept of deterrence is simple: â€Å"it is the omission of a criminal act because of the fear of sanctions or punishments. Deterrence is an important foundation of the criminal justice system. Law enforcement is there to apprehend those that break the law, and to convince the public that there is a risk of apprehension